Entrepreneurship as Rebellion: Social Pressure, Colonial Legacies, and the Collapse of Support Systems for Youth in Rural Kashmir

Abstract

This article examines the sociocultural and structural barriers that inhibit youth

entrepreneurship in rural Kashmir. Drawing on semi-structured interviews with 48

participants aged 16 to 32, including secondary school students and young adults preparing

for government jobs or civil services, the study applies Social Cognitive Career Theory

(SCCT) to understand how familial pressure, colonial occupational hierarchies, and

institutional exclusion discourage entrepreneurial aspirations. Findings suggest that

entrepreneurship in this context is perceived not only as economically risky but also as a

deviation from socially sanctioned norms of respectability. The paper argues that addressing

these barriers requires context-sensitive interventions that include mentorship from local role

models, curriculum reform, and improved dissemination of entrepreneurship schemes. The

study contributes to scholarship on youth agency, education, and economic development in

conflict-affected societies.

Keywords: Kashmir; youth; entrepreneurship; education; social pressure; SCCT; conflict;

decolonisation

1. Introduction

Youth entrepreneurship is increasingly recognised as a mechanism for socio-economic

development, particularly in regions facing protracted conflict and economic marginalisation

(World Bank, 2023). However, in Kashmir, a region marked by militarisation, political

instability, and socio-cultural conservatism; entrepreneurship among teenagers remains

minimal.

This article investigates why many high school students and young people in Kashmir are

not interested in starting their own businesses, despite the presence of several national

programs that encourage youth entrepreneurship. As an insider researcher and former

student in this educational setting, I noticed that career choices were often influenced less by

personal interest and more by social expectations and institutional norms. The central

research question guiding this study is: what social, cultural, and structural factors are

preventing young people in rural Kashmir from pursuing entrepreneurship?

2. Literature Review

In South Asian societies, career choices are often shaped more by what society considers

respectable than by individual passions or interests. Government jobs, medicine, and

teaching are commonly viewed as stable and honorable professions, while careers like

entrepreneurship may be seen as risky or even inappropriate in certain communities.

This mindset is even more visible in conflict-affected regions like Kashmir, where political

instability and insecurity make young people lean toward “safe” options that are socially

accepted. Research by Bhan and Duschinski (2020) shows how military occupation and

ongoing surveillance influence how youth think about their futures. Similarly, the book

Resisting Occupation in Kashmir (Duschinski et al., 2018) highlights how conflict changes

ideas of stability, honor, and success.

These pressures are even more intense for girls. Based on interviews conducted for this

study, most rural female students said they would hesitate to start a business because of

how their families and communities might react. They feared social judgment or harming

their family’s reputation. Such views reflect broader gender norms that limit girls’

independence and encourage them to follow safer, more obedient paths.

Although national programs like Startup India and PMEGP aim to support young

entrepreneurs, students in rural or conflict-affected areas often don’t benefit from them.

Barriers like poor internet access, confusing application procedures, and a general lack of

trust in government systems were frequently mentioned in interviews as reasons for not

applying.

This paper uses Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) to understand these patterns.

SCCT explains how self-belief, social expectations, and outside barriers shape career

decisions (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994). In Kashmir, low confidence, limited access to

resources, and fear of social consequences make it especially hard for young people,

particularly girls, to pursue unconventional or risky paths.

3. Methodology

This study is based on 48 in-depth, semi-structured interviews with students and young

adults aged 16 to 32 from rural private schools in the Srinagar and Ganderbal districts of

Kashmir. Of the participants, 32 identified as female and 16 as male. The schools were

selected based on their status as English-medium institutions serving aspirational

middle-income families.

Participants were recruited through convenience sampling and interviewed either in person

or by phone. Interviews were not audio-recorded due to cultural sensitivity and privacy

concerns. Instead, detailed notes were taken. All participants provided verbal informed

consent and were assigned pseudonyms.

Data were analysed using Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis framework. Themes

were developed inductively and reviewed in light of SCCT constructs.

4. Findings

4.1. Career Choice as a Social Strategy

Participants frequently described career aspirations not in terms of personal interest but as

responses to familial and social scrutiny. One student remarked, “I just want to crack NEET

so relatives stop mocking us” (T,17). Engineering and medicine were perceived as pathways

to respect and insulation from community criticism.

4.2. Parental and Community Pressure

Respondents reported intense pressure from parents and extended family members to

pursue conventional career paths. One male participant noted: “My father says arts is for

failures, we’ll be village laughingstocks” (A,18). Girls reported an additional layer of scrutiny

linked to honour and social reputation.

4.3. Stigma Attached to Commerce and Business

Subjects reported negative perceptions of commerce streams. “Commerce students are lazy

and not intelligent,” stated S (19), echoing a widespread belief that values bureaucratic or

technical careers over business. In many cases, participants associated commerce with

lower academic status, seeing business as something students choose only when they “fail”

to qualify for science or government-track paths. This reflects long-standing social ideas that

frame entrepreneurship as a fallback rather than a first choice.

4.4. Lack of Awareness about Government Support Schemes

None of the participants were familiar with key programmes such as Startup India or

Tejaswini. Their typical response was indifference: “We don’t care, we just want to pass

JEE.” This indicates a disconnect between policy formulation and grassroots dissemination.

4.5. Business as a Marker of Failure

Entrepreneurship was often viewed as a fallback for those who couldn’t secure more

“respectable” careers. “My cousin started a bakery, and people began calling her

Kanderbai,” said N (29). The word means “bakery woman” in Kashmiri, but it’s used as an

insult, not a job title. Instead of being seen as driven or creative, she was mocked and made

to feel inferior. In this context, business isn’t seen as empowerment, it’s treated as a

deviation from what’s socially acceptable.

4.6. The Primacy of Entrance Exams

Some participants were preparing for competitive exams, including government job and civil

service tests. While a few were enrolled in coaching centres, others studied independently at

home or used public libraries to access online lectures. Across the group, creative pursuits

or entrepreneurial exploration were often seen as distractions from “serious” or socially

acceptable career goals.

5. Discussion

This study shows that youth in rural Kashmir internalise social norms that associate business

with failure and academic careers with respectability. These norms are reinforced by a long

history of structural inequality, where certain professions are seen as more legitimate.

Ongoing political conflict and daily instability discourage risk-taking and push students

toward socially accepted, safe career paths. As Bhan and Duschinski (2020) argue,

prolonged militarisation shapes not only everyday life but also how young people imagine

their futures. These preferences are not new. They reflect a deeper legacy of colonial and

postcolonial systems in which state-aligned professions were elevated above independent or

informal work.

Using SCCT, the following dynamics emerge:

● Self-efficacy is weakened by the lack of entrepreneurial role models, mentorship

opportunities, and visible success stories in the local context.

● Outcome expectations are largely negative, as youth anticipate social backlash or

reputational harm for choosing non-traditional career paths like business.

● Contextual barriers, including political conflict, limited awareness of government

schemes, gendered restrictions, and community stigma, further limit students’ sense

of agency and possibility.

Entrepreneurship, in this setting, represents not only economic innovation but also a form of

social defiance. To support youth in navigating these constraints, the following interventions

are proposed:

SCCT Construct Intervention

Self-Efficacy Introduce school-based mentorship

programs featuring local entrepreneurs as

role models.

Outcome Expectations Launch awareness campaigns that highlight

real success stories of youth-led

businesses.

Contextual Barriers Deploy mobile outreach units and develop

localized entrepreneurship training modules

in native languages.

6. Conclusion

The reluctance to pursue entrepreneurship among youth in rural Kashmir does not stem

from apathy or lack of ability. Instead, it reflects a rational response to a socio-political

environment that penalises non-conformity. As long as educational, social, and policy

frameworks continue to reward obedience and stigmatise risk, youth will remain hesitant to

step outside conventional paths. Without structural changes that normalise uncertainty and

legitimise failure, the full potential of youth-led innovation in conflict-affected regions will

remain largely untapped.

7. Limitations and Future Research

This study was limited by its small sample size and its focus on a specific demographic.

While it offers important insights, future research should include a wider range of

perspectives, particularly from parents, educators, and policymakers, since these groups

have a strong influence on career decisions. Comparative studies between Kashmir and

other conflict-affected regions could also provide a broader understanding of how conflict,

culture, and social expectations shape youth aspirations.

Ethical Considerations

Verbal informed consent was obtained from all participants. No identifying information was

collected. Pseudonyms were used, and data were anonymised and securely stored. No

formal ethical clearance was required due to the nature of the study.

Acknowledgements

The author thanks the student participants for their openness and trust. This research was

conducted independently and received no external funding.

Competing Interests

The author declares no competing interests.

References

Bhan, M. and Duschinski, H. (2020). Occupations in context – The cultural logics of

occupation, settler violence, and resistance. Critique of Anthropology, 40(3), pp.286–305.

Braun, V. and Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. *Qualitative

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Duschinski, H., Bhan, M., Zia, A. and Mahmood, C. (eds.) (2018). *Resisting Occupation in

Kashmir*. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Lent, R.W., Brown, S.D. and Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of

career and academic interest, choice, and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior,

45(1), pp.79–122.

World Bank. (2023). World Development Report 2023: Jobs for Resilience. Washington,

D.C.: World Bank.